| Latest History NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||
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Latest Class 12th History NCERT Notes, NCERT Question Solutions and Extra Q & A
1. Bricks, Beads And Bones - The Harappan Civilisation
This chapter explores the archaeological evidence related to the **Indus Valley Civilization** (c. 2600-1900 BCE), also known as the Harappan Civilisation, one of the world's oldest urban cultures in the Indian subcontinent. It discusses key findings from excavated sites like **Harappa**, **Mohenjo-Daro**, and Lothal, focusing on their town planning (grid pattern, drainage systems), architecture (use of fired bricks), craftsmanship (beads, pottery, seals), and apparent social and economic organization. The chapter highlights how archaeologists interpret these material remains to understand the life and culture of this ancient civilisation that flourished along river valleys, offering insights into early South Asian urbanism.
2. Kings, Farmers And Towns - Early States And Economies (C.600 Bce-600 Ce)
This chapter examines the major political and economic developments in the Indian subcontinent from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE, a period marked by the rise of early states and empires. It discusses the emergence of the **Mahajanapadas**, the rise of the powerful **Magadha empire**, and the achievements of rulers like **Ashoka** (Mauryan Empire). It explores changes in agriculture (**iron plough, transplantation**), the growth of towns, and the development of **trade routes**. Different sources like inscriptions (e.g., Ashokan edicts) and coinage (e.g., punch-marked coins) are used to reconstruct this era of significant state formation and economic growth in ancient India.
3. Kinship, Caste And Class - Early Societies (C. 600 Bce-600 Ce)
This chapter explores the social structures and relationships in early Indian societies from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE, as reflected in texts like the **Mahabharata**. It discusses the concepts of **kinship** (family ties) and **lineage**. The chapter delves into the development and rigidity of the **caste system** (Varna order: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras), rules of marriage (endogamy, exogamy), and property ownership based on social status. It highlights how historians use different sources to understand social norms and hierarchies, including exceptions and challenges to these systems, offering insights into the complexities of ancient Indian society.
4. Thinkers, Beliefs And Buildings - Cultural Developments (C. 600 Bce-600 Ce)
This chapter examines the major cultural and religious developments in the Indian subcontinent from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE. It discusses the emergence of new religious traditions like **Buddhism** (teachings of Gautama Buddha) and **Jainism** (teachings of Mahavira), offering alternatives to existing Brahmanical traditions. The chapter explores the development of religious art and architecture, such as stupas (e.g., Sanchi), monasteries, and temples, which reflect the beliefs and practices of the time. It highlights how these diverse philosophical ideas and artistic expressions shaped the cultural landscape of ancient India.
5. Through The Eyes Of Travellers: - Perceptions Of Society (C. Tenth To Seventeenth Centuries)
This chapter explores how foreign **travellers** who visited the Indian subcontinent between the 10th and 17th centuries perceived and described Indian society. It discusses the accounts of prominent travellers like **Al-Biruni** (11th century, on India's knowledge systems), **Ibn Battuta** (14th century, on social life and cities), and **François Bernier** (17th century, on the Mughal Empire and social inequalities). By analyzing their observations and biases, historians gain different perspectives on various aspects of Indian society, including urban life, trade, customs, and social hierarchies, offering valuable insights into the period.
6. Bhakti –Sufi Traditions: - Changes In Religious Beliefs And Devotional Texts (C. Eighth To Eighteenth Centuries)
This chapter examines the development of the **Bhakti and Sufi movements** in India from the 8th to the 18th centuries. It discusses how these devotional traditions emphasized personal devotion to God and challenged orthodox religious practices and social distinctions (like caste). Key figures like Alvars and Nayanars (South India), **Kabir**, Nanak, Mirabai (North India Bhakti), and Sufi saints (like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti) are discussed. The chapter highlights the rich body of devotional literature and how these movements fostered religious tolerance and cultural synthesis in medieval India.
7. An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara - (C. Fourteenth To Sixteenth Centuries)
This chapter focuses on the **Vijayanagara Empire** (c. 14th-16th centuries), a powerful state in South India and its magnificent capital city, **Vijayanagara** (modern Hampi). It explores the political structure, economic prosperity (trade, agriculture, water management), and vibrant cultural life of the empire. Insights from archaeological remains (temples, palaces, fortifications) and accounts of foreign visitors (like Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz) are used to reconstruct the city's grandeur and the life of its inhabitants. The chapter highlights Vijayanagara as a significant example of state formation and urban development in medieval South India.
8. Peasants, Zamindars And The State: - Agrarian Society And The Mughal Empire (C. Sixteenth-Seventeenth Centuries)
This chapter examines the agrarian structure and rural society during the **Mughal Empire** (c. 16th-17th centuries). It focuses on the relationship between **peasants** (cultivators), **zamindars** (landholders), and the **state** (Mughal administration). It discusses land revenue systems (e.g., Ain-i-Akbari), agricultural production, technology, and the lives of rural inhabitants. The chapter highlights the diverse layers of rural society and the tensions that sometimes arose between these groups. It uses sources like the **Ain-i Akbari** to understand the economic and social dynamics of Mughal agrarian society.
9. Colonialism And The Countryside: - Exploring Official Archives
This chapter explores the impact of **British colonialism** on the rural areas of India by focusing on the insights derived from **official archives**. It examines revenue policies (like Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari), forest laws, and the commercialization of agriculture. The chapter discusses how these policies transformed land relations, impacted the lives of peasants and tribal communities, and sometimes led to revolts. By analyzing official records and reports, historians understand the administrative changes and their consequences for the agrarian society under colonial rule, highlighting how colonial power reshaped the Indian countryside.
10. Rebels And The Raj: - 1857 Revolt And Its Representations
This chapter focuses on the **Revolt of 1857** against British rule, examining it from the perspective of the rebels and their representations. It explores the causes and course of the revolt in different regions and the efforts by various groups (sepoys, peasants, zamindars, rulers) to resist the British. The chapter also analyzes how the revolt was represented in British and Indian accounts, highlighting the different narratives and interpretations of this pivotal event. It showcases the bravery of the rebels and the challenges faced by the British **Raj** in suppressing this widespread uprising, changing the nature of colonial rule.
11. Mahatma Gandhi And The Nationalist Movement: - Civil Disobedience And Beyond
This chapter focuses on the crucial role of **Mahatma Gandhi** in the **Indian nationalist movement** from his return in 1915 to India's independence in 1947. It discusses his philosophy of **Satyagraha** (truth force) and non-violent resistance. Major movements led by Gandhi, such as the Non-Cooperation Movement, the **Civil Disobedience Movement** (e.g., Dandi March against salt tax), and the Quit India Movement, are explored. The chapter highlights Gandhi's leadership, his ability to mobilize masses across social divides, and his impact on the course of the freedom struggle, leading India towards independence.
12. Framing The Constitution: - The Beginning Of A New Era
This chapter discusses the process of drafting and adopting the **Constitution of India**, which marked the beginning of a new era for the independent nation. It introduces the **Constituent Assembly**, its composition, and the debates and deliberations that took place among its members. The chapter highlights the key principles and values enshrined in the Constitution, such as sovereignty, socialism, secularism, democracy, and justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity. It explains how the Constitution laid the foundation for India as a democratic republic, outlining the structure of the government and fundamental rights and duties of its citizens.